ISSN: 0443-511
e-ISSN: 2448-5667
Usuario/a
Idioma
Herramientas del artículo
Envíe este artículo por correo electrónico (Inicie sesión)
Enviar un correo electrónico al autor/a (Inicie sesión)
Tamaño de fuente

Open Journal Systems

Parkinsonismo: diagnósticos alternativos a la enfermedad idiopática de Parkinson

José Gutiérrez, Carlos Singer

Resumen


El parkinsonismo es un cuadro clínico caracterizado por temblor en las extremidades y rigidez en los movimientos. La causa más común es la enfermedad idiopática de Parkinson, sin embargo, existen múltiples patologías y circunstancias clínicas que pueden dar cuenta de estas manifestaciones. El tratamiento y pronóstico son totalmente diferentes según la patología de que se trate, de ahí la gran importancia del diagnóstico correcto. El presente trabajo pretende hacer una revisión general de las causas más comunes de parkinsonismo para facilitar el abordaje de este importante cuadro clínico.


Palabras clave


Trastornos Parkinsonianos; Demencia

Texto completo:

PDF

Referencias


Tisch S, Silberstein P, Limousin-Dowsey P, Jahanshahi M. The basal ganglia: anatomy, physiology, and pharmacology. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2004;27(4):757-799.

 

Missale C, Nash SR, Robinson SW, Jaber M, Caron MG. Dopamine receptors: from structure to function. Physiol Rev 1998;78(1):189-225.

 

Brotchie P, Iansek R, Horne MK. Motor function of the monkey globus pallidus. 2. Cognitive aspects of movement and phasic neuronal activity. Brain 1991;114(4):1685-1702.

 

Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Kilford L, Lees AJ. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992;55(3):181-184.

 

Rajput AH, Rozdilsky B, Rajput A. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis in Parkinsonism: a prospective study. Can J Neurol Sci 1991;18(3):275-278.

 

Joachim CL, Morris JH, Kosik KS, Selkoe DJ. Tau antisera recognize neurofibrillary tangles in a range of neurodegenerative disorders. Ann Neurol 1987;22(4):514-520.

 

Jankovic J, Rajput AH, McDermott MP, Perl DP. The evolution of diagnosis in early Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2000;57(3):369-372.

 

Gilman S. Parkinsonian syndromes. Clin Geriatr Med 2006;22(4):827-842.

 

Tolosa E, Wenning G, Poewe W. The diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. Lancet Neurol 2006;5(1):75-86.

 

Buee L, Delacourte A. Comparative biochemistry of tau in progressive supranuclear palsy, cortico-basal degeneration, FTDP-17 and Pick’s disease. Brain Pathol 1999;9(4):681-693.

 

Sergeant N, Delacourte A, Buee L. Tau protein as a differential biomarker of tauopathies. Bio-chim Biophys Acta 2005;1739(2-3):179-197.

 

Delacorute A. Tauopathies: recent insights into old diseases. Folia Neuropathol 2005;43(4):244-257.

 

Litvan I, Agid Y, Calne D, et al. Clinical research criteria for the diagnosis of progressive supranuclear palsy (Steele-Richardson- Olszewski syndrome): report of the NINDS-SPSP international workshop. Neurology 1996;47(1):1-9.

 

Wenning GK, Litvan I, Jankovic J, et al. Natural history and survival of 14 patients with cortico-basal degeneration confirmed at postmortem exa-mination. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64(2):184-189.

 

Bower JH, Maraganore DM, McDonnell SK, Rocca WA. Incidence of progressive supranuclear palsy and multiple system atrophy in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1976 to 1990. Neurology 1997;49(5):1284-1288. 

 

Nath U, Ben-Shlomo Y, Thomson RG, Morris HR, Wood NW, Lees AJ, et al. The prevalence of progressive supranuclear palsy (Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome) in the UK. Brain 2001;124 (Pt 7):1438-1449.

 

Wisniewski K, Jervis GA, Moretz RC, Wisniewski HM. Alzheimer neurofibrillary tangles in diseases other than senile and presenile dementia. Ann Neurol 1979;5(3):288-294.

 

Vermersch P, Robitaille Y, Bernier L, Wattez A, Gauvreau D, Delacourte A. Biochemical mapping of neurofibrillary degeneration in a case of progressive supranuclear palsy: evidence for general cortical involvement. Acta Neuropathol 1994; 87(6):572-577.

 

Pittman AM, Myers AJ, Duckworth J, Bryden L, Hanson M, Abou-Sleiman P, et al. The structure of the tau haplotype in controls and in progressive supranuclear palsy. Hum Moler Genet 2004;13 (12):1267-1274.

 

Christine CW, Aminoff MJ. Clinical differentiation of parkinsonian syndromes: prognostic and therapeutic relevance. Am J Med 2004;117(6):412-419.

 

Litvan I, Campbell G, Mangone CA, Verny M, McKee A, Ray Chaudhuri K, et al. Which clinical features differentiate progressive supranuclear palsy (Steele-Richardson- Olszewski syndrome) from related disorders? A clinicopathological study. Brain 1997;120(Pt 1):65-74.

 

Steele JC, Richardson JC, Olszewski J. Pro-gressive supranuclear palsy: a heterogeneous degeneration involving the brain stem, basal ganglia and cerebellum with vertical gaze and pseudobulbar palsy, nuchal dystonia and dementia. Arch Neurol 1964;10:333-59.

 

Menza MA, Cocchiola J, Golbe LI. Psychiatric symptoms in progressive supranuclear palsy. Psychosomatics 1995;36(6):550-554.

 

Litvan I, Mega MS, Cummings JL, Fairbanks L. Neuropsychiatric aspects of progressive supranuclear palsy. Neurology 1996;47(5):1184-1189.

 

Savoiardo M, Strada L, Girotti F, D’Incerti L, Sberna M, Soliveri P, et al. MR imaging in progressive supranuclear palsy and Shy-Drager syndrome. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1989;13(4):555- 560.

 

Paviour DC, Price SL, Stevens JM, Lees AJ, Fox NC. Quantitative MRI measurement of superior cerebellar peduncle in progressive supranuclear palsy. Neurology 2005;64(4):675-679.

 

Warmuth-Metz M, Naumann M, Csoti I, Solymosi L. Measurement of the midbrain diameter on rou-tine magnetic resonance imaging: a simple and accurate method of differentiating between Par-kinson disease and progressive supranuclear palsy. Arch Neurol 2001;58(7):1076-1079.

 

Piccini P, de Yebenez J, Lees AJ, Ceravolo R, Turjanski N, Pramstaller P, et al. Familial pro-gressive supranuclear palsy. Detection of subcli-nical cases using 18F-dopa and 18 Fluorodeoxy- glucose position emission tomography. Arch Neurol 2001;58(11):1846-1851.

 

Zhang L, Murata Y, Ishida R, Saitoh Y, Mizusawa H, Shibuya H. Differentiating between progressive supranuclear palsy and corticobasal degeneration by brain perfusion SPECT. Nucl Med Commun 2001;22(7):767-772.

 

Nieforth KA, Golbe LI. Retrospective study of drug response in 87 patients with progressive supranuclear palsy. Clin Neuropharmacol 1993;16(4):338-346.

 

Golbe LI, Davis PH, Schoenberg BS, et al. Prevalence and natural history of progressive supranuclear palsy. Neurology 1988;38(7):1031-1034.

 

Mahapatra RK, Edwards MJ, Schott JM, Bhatia KPl. Corticobasal degeneration. Lancet Neurol 2004;3(12):736-743.

 

Wenning GK, Litvan I, Jankovic J, Granata R, Mangone CA, McKee A, et al. Natural history and survival of 14 patients with corticobasal degeneration confirmed at postmortem examination. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64(2):184-189.

 

Togasaki DM, Tanner CM. Epidemiologic aspects. Adv Neurol 2000;82:53-59.

 

Zadikoff C, Lang AE. Apraxia in movement disorders. Brain 2005;128(Pt 7):1480-1497.

 

Lauterbach EC. The neuropsychiatry of Parkin-son’s disease. Minerva Med 2005;96(3):155-173.

 

Kompoliti K, Goetz CG, Boeve BF, Maraganore DM, Ahlskog JE, Marsden CD, et al.. Clinical presentation and pharmacological therapy in corticobasal degeneration. Arch Neurol 1998; 55(7):957-961.

 

Dickson DW, Bergeron C, Chin SS, et al. Office of Rare Diseases neuropathologic criteria for cortico-basal degeneration. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2002;61(11):935-946.

 

Houlden H, Baker M, Morris HR, et al. Corticobasal degeneration and pro-gressive supranuclear palsy share a common tau haplotype. Neurology 2001; 56(12):1702-1706.

 

Boxer AL, Geschwind MD, Belfor N, et al. Patterns of brain atrophy that differentiate corticobasal degeneration syndrome from progressive supranuclear palsy. Arch Neurol 2006;63(1):81-86.

 

Pirker W, Asenbaum S, Bencsits G, Prayer D,  Gerschlager W,  Deecke L, et al. [123I]beta-CIT SPECT in multiple system atrophy, progressive e supranuclear palsy, and corticobasal degeneration. Mov Disord 2000;15(6):1158-1167.

 

Kompoliti K, Goetz CG, Boeve BF, Maraganore DM, Ahlskog JE, Marsden CD, et al. Clinical presentation and pharmacological therapy in cortico-basal degeneration. Arch Neurol 1998; 55:957- 961.

 

Gibb WR, Luthert PJ, Marsden CD. Corticobasal degeneration. Brain 1989; 112(Pt 5):1171-1192.

 

Neary D, Snowden J, Mann D. Frontotemporal dementia. Lancet Neurol 2005;4(11):771-780.

 

Foster NL, Wilhelmsen K, Sima AA, Jones MZ, D’Amato CJ, Gilman S. Frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17: a consensus conference. Conference Participants. Ann Neurol 1997;41:706-715.

 

Poorkaj P, Bird TD, Wijsman E, Nemens E, Garruto RM, Anderson L, et al. Tau is a candidate gene for chromosome 17 frontotemporal dementia. Ann Neurol 1998;43:815-825.

 

Rovelet-Lecrux A, Lecourtois M, Thomas-Anterion C, Le Ber I, Brice A, Frebourg T, et al. Partial deletion of the MAPT gene: a novel mechanism of FTDP-17. Hum Mutat 2009;30(4):E591-E602.

 

Tarawneh R, Galvin JE. Distinguishing Lewy body dementias from Alzheimer’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2007;7(11):1499-1516.

 

Lantos PL. The definition of multiple system atrophy: a review of recent developments. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998;57:1099-1111.

 

Schrag A, Ben-Shlomo Y, Quinn NP. Prevalence of progressive supranuclear palsy and multiple system atrophy: a cross-sectional study. Lancet 1999;354:1771-1775.

 

Schrag A, Ben-Shlomo Y, Quinn NP. Prevalence of progressive supranuclear palsy and multiple system atrophy: a cross-sectional study. Lancet 1999;354(9192):1771-1775.

 

Vanacore N. Epidemiological evidence on multiple system atrophy. J Neural Transm 2005;112 (12):1605-1612.

 

Gilman S, Low PA, Quinn N, et al. Consensus statement on the diagnosis of multiple system atrophy. J Neurol Sci 1999;163(1):94-98.

 

Wenning GK, Seppi K, Scherfler C, Stefanova N, Puschban Z. Multiple system atrophy. Semin Neurol 2001;21:33-40.

 

Gouider-Khouja N, Vidailhet M, Bonnet AM, Pichon J, Agid Y. Pure striatonigral degeneration and Parkinson’s disease. A comparative clinical study. Mov Disord 1995;10:288-294.

 

Colosimo C, Albanese A, Hughes AJ, de Bruin VM, Lees AJ. Some specific clinical features differentiate multiple system atrophy (striatonigral variety) from Parkinson’s disease. Arch Neurol 1995;52:294-298.

 

Pellecchia MT, Pivonello R, Colao A, Barone P. Growth hormone stimulation tests in the differential diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. Clin Med Res 2006;4(4):322-325.

 

Kashmere J, Camicioli R, Martin W. Parkinsonian syndromes and differential diagnosis. Curr Opin Neurol 2002;15(4):461-466.

 

Cilia R, Marotta G, Benti R, Pezzoli G, Antonini A. Brain SPECT imaging in multiple system atrophy. J Neural Transm 2005;112(12):1635-1645.

 

Berciano J. Olivopontocerebellar atrophy. En: Jankovic J, Tolosa E, editors. Parkinson’s disease and movement disorders. 3rd edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins; 1998. p. 263- 296.

 

Colosimo C, Geser F, Benarroch EE. Multiple system atrophy. En: Gilman S, editor. Neurobiology of disease. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2007.

 

Shimizu N, Takiyama Y, Mizuno Y, Mizuno M, Saito K, Yoshida M. Characteristics of oculomotor disor-ders of a family with Joseph’s disease. J Neurol 1990;237:393-397.

 

Beck RO, Betts CD, Fowler CJ. Genitourinary dysfunction in multiple system atrophy: clinical features and treatment in 62 cases. J Urol 1994; 151(5):1336-1341.

 

Papatsoris AG, Papapetropoulos S, Singer C, Deliveliotis C. Urinary and erectile dysfunction in multiple system atrophy (MSA). Neurourol Urodyn 2008;27(1):22-27.

 

Munschauer FE, Loh L, Bannister R, Newsom-Davis J. Abnormal respiration and sudden death during sleep in multiple system atrophy with autonomic falure. Neurology 1990;40(4):677-679.

 

McKeith IG, Galasko D, Kosaka K, Perry EK, Dickson DW, Hansen LA, et al. Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathologic diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop. Neurology 1996;47(5):1113-1124.

 

McKeith I, Mintzer J, Aarsland D, Burn D, Chiu H, Cohen-Mansfield J, et al. Dementia with Lewy bodies. Lancet Neurol 2004;3(1):19-28.

 

Neef D, Walling AD. Dementia with Lewy bodies: an emerging disease. Am Fam Physician. 2006; 73(7):1223-1229.

 

Zarranz JJ, Alegre J, Gómez-Esteban JC, Lezcano E, Ros R, Ampuero I, et al. The new mutation, E46K, of alpha-synuclein causes Parkinson and Lewy body dementia. Ann Neurol 2004;55(2):164-173.

 

Gregory A, Hayflick SJ. Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation. Folia Neuropathol 2005; 43(4):286-296.

 

Gregory A, Polster BJ, Hayflick SJ. Clinical and genetic delineation of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation. J Med Genet 2009;46(2):73-80.

 

Zhou B, Westaway SK, Levinson B, Johnson MA, Gitschier J, Hayflick SJ. A novel pantothenate kinase gene (PANK2) is defective in Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome. Nat Genet 2001;28(4):345-349.

 

Johnson MA, Kuo YM, Westaway SK, Parker SM, Ching KH, Gitschier J, et al. Mitochondrial  localization of human PANK2 and hypotheses of secondary iron accumulation in pantothenate kinase- associated neurodegeneration. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004;1012:282-298.

 

Hayflick SJ, Westaway SK, Levinson B, Zhou B, Johnson MA, Ching KH, et al. Genetic, clinical and radiographic delineation of Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003;348(1):33-40.

 

Hill, JM. Brain Iron. En: Youdim MB, editor. Neuro-chemical and behavioural aspects. London: Taylor and Francis; 1988.

 

Hayflick SJ, Penzien JM, Michl W, Sharif UM, Rosman NP, Wheeler PG. Cranial MRI changes may precede symptoms in Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome. Pediatr Neurol 2001;25(2):166-169.

 

Arawaka S, Saito Y, Murayama S, Mori H. Lewy body in neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation type 1 is immunoreactive for alpha-synuclein. Neurology 1998;51(3):887-889.

 

Clement F, Devos D, Moreau C, Coubes P, Destee A, Defebvre L. Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation: clinical, radiographic and genetic heterogeneity and corresponding therapeutic options. Acta Neurol Belg 2007;107(1):26-31.

 

Folstein SE, Leigh RJ, Parhad IM, Folstein MF. The diagnosis of Huntington’s disease. Neurology 1986;36(10):1279-1283.

 

Gusella JF, Wexler NS, Conneally PM, Naylor SL, Anderson MA, Tanzi RE, et al. A polymorphic DNA marker genetically linked to Huntington’s disease. Nature 1983;306(5940):234-238.

 

Harper PS. The epidemiology of Huntington’s disease. Hum Genet 1992;89(4):365-376.

 

Naarding P, Kremer HP, Zitman FG. Huntington’s disease: a review of the literature on prevalence and treatment of neuropsychiatric phenomena. Eur Psychiatry 2001;16(8):439-445.

 

Vonsattel JP, Myers RH, Stevens TJ, Ferrante RJ, Bird ED, Richardson EP Jr. Neuropathological classification of Huntington’s disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1985;44:559-577.

 

Bhidayasiri R, Truong DD. Chorea and related disorders. Postgrad Med J. 2004 Sep;80(947): 527-534.

 

Schoenfeld M, Myers RH, Cupples LA, et al. Increased rate of suicide among patients with Huntington’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1984;47(12):1283-1287.

 

O’Reilly S, Weber PM, Oswald M, et al. Abnormalities of the physiology of copper in Wilson’s disease. 3. The excretion of copper. Arch Neurol 1971; 25(1):28-32.

 

Ferenci P, Caca K, Loudianos G, Mieli-Vergani G, Tanner S, Sternlieb I, et al. Diagnosis and phenotypic classification of Wilson disease. Liver Int 2003;23:139-142.

 

Sternlieb I. Perspectives on Wilson’s disease. Hepatology 1990;12(5):1234-1239.

 

Ivan Wassenaer-van Hall HN, van den Heuvel AG, Algra A, Hoogenraad TU, Mali WP. Wilson disease: findings at MR imaging and CT of the brain with clinical correlation. Radiology 1996;198(2): 531-536.

 

Kuruvilla A, Joseph S. Face of the giant panda sign in Wilson’s disease: revisited. Neurol India 2000; 48(4):395-396.

 

Roberts EA, Schilsky ML. AASLD practice guidelines. A practice guideline on Wilson disease. Hepatology 2003;37:1475-1492.

 

Yoshitoshi EY, Takada Y, Oike F, Sakamoto S, Ogawa K, Kanazawa H, et al.  Long-term outcomes for 32 cases of Wilson’s disease after living-donor liver transplantation. Transplantation 2009;87(2):261-267.

 

Sachdev PS. Neuroleptic-Induced Movement disorders: an overview. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2005;28(1):255-274.

 

Chaudhuri KR, Nott J. Drug-induced parkinso-nism. En: Sethi KD, editor. Drug-induced movement disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2004. p. 61-75.

 

Morgan JC, Sethi KD. Drug-induced tremors. Lancet Neurol 2005;4(12):866-876.

 

Ayd FJ. A survey of drug-induced extrapyramidal reactions. JAMA 1961;175:1054-1060.

 

Nyberg S, Farde L, Halldin C. A PET study of 5HT2 and D2 dopamine receptor occupancy induced by olanzapine in healthy subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997;16:1-7.

 

Stephen PJ, Williamson J. Drug-induced parkinsonism in the elderly. Lancet 1984;2(8411):1082-1083.

 

Charness ME, Morady F, Scheinman MM. Frequent neurologic toxicity associated with amiodarone therapy.  Neurology 1984;34(5):669-671.

 

Borucki MJ, Matzke DS, Pollard RB. Tremor induced by trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ann Intern Med 1988;109(1):77-78.

 

Burdge DR, Chow AW, Sacks SL. Neurotoxic effects during vidarabine therapy for herpes zoster. Can Med Assoc J 1985;132(4):392-395.

 

Raethjen J, Lemke MR, Linderman M, Wenzelburger R, Krack P, Deuschl G. Amitriptyline enhances the central component of physiological tremor. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;70(1):78-82.

 

Bharucha KJ, Sethi KD. Movement disorders induced by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other antidepressants. En: Sethi KD, editor. Drug-induced movement disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2004 p. 233-257.

 

Karas BJ, Wilder BJ, Hammond EJ, Bauman AW. Valproate tremors. Neurology 1982;32(4):428-432.

 

Morgan JC, Harrison MB. Antiepileptics. En: Factor SA, editor. Drug-induced movement disorders. 2nd ed. Massachusetts, USA: Blackwell; 2005. p. 408-429.

 

Nizet TA, Broeders ME, Folgering HT. Tremor side effects of salbutamol, quantified by a laser pointer technique. Respir Med 2004;98(9):844-850.

 

Acharya SR, Kumar TN, Vasshadhara C. Metoclo-pramide-a cholinomimetic tremorogen? J Assoc Physicians India 1982;30(2):119.

 

Neiman J, Lang AE, Fornazzari L, Carlen PL. Movement disorders in alcoholism: a review. Neurology 1990;40(5):741-746.

 

Carlen PL, Wilkinson DA, Wortzman G, Holgate R, Cordingley J, Lee MA, et al. Cerebral atrophy and functional deficits in alcoholics without clinically apparent liver disease. Neurology 1981;31(4): 377-385.

 

Pappert EJ. Toxin-induced movement disorders. Neurol Clin 2005;23(2):429-459.

 

Klawans HL, Weiner WJ. The effect of d-amphe-tamine on choreiform movement disorders. Neurology 1974;24(4):312-318.

 

Ballard PA, Tetrud JW, Langston JW. Permanent parkinsonism in humans due to 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP): seven cases. Neurology 1985;35(7):949-956.

 

Langston JW, Ballard PA. Parkinsonism induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP): implications for treatment and the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Can J Neurol Sci 1984;11(1 Suppl):160-165.

 

Crouper J. Sur les effets du peroxide de manganese. J Chim Med Pharm Toxicol 1837;3:223-225.

 

Nelson K, Gulnick J, Korn T, Angle C. Manganese encephalopathy: utility of early magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Ind Med 1993;506):510-513.

 

Ritchie JM. The aliphatic alcohols. En: Goodman LS, Gilman A, editors. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. London: Macmillan; 1970. p. 135-150.

 

Branch A, Tonning DJ. Acute methyl alcohol poi-soning. Observations in some thirty cases. Can J Public Health 1945;36:147-151.

 

Borhaus EC. Methyl alcohol poisoning: a clinical and pathological study of 11 fatal cases. Illinois Med J 1930;57:260-263.

 

Peters HA, Levine RL, Matthews CG, Chapman LJ. Extrapyramidal and other neurologic manifestations associated with carbon disulfide fumigant exposure. Arch Neurol 1988; 45(5):537-540.

 

Spencer PS, Couri D, Schaumburg HH. n-Hexane and methyl n-butyl ketone. En: Spencer PS, Schaumberg HH, editors. Experimental and clinical neurotoxicology. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1980. p. 456-475.

 

Borron SW, Baud FJ. Acute cyanide poisoning: clinical spectrum, diagnosis, and treatment. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 1996;47(3):307-322.

 

Grandas F, Artieda J, Obeso JA. Clinical and CT scan findings in a case of cyanide intoxication. Mov Disord 1989;4(2):188-193.

 

Smith JS, Brandon S. Morbidity from acute carbon monoxide poisoning at three year follow-up. BMJ 1973;1(5849):318-321.

 

Norkool DM, Kirkpatrick JN. Treatment of acute carbon monoxide poisoning with hyperbaric oxy-gen: a review of 115 cases. Ann Emerg Med 1985; 14(12):1168-1171.

 

Galasko D, Salmon DP, Craig UK, Thal LJ, Schellen-berg G, Wiederholt W. Clinical features and changing patterns of neurodegenerative disorders on Guam, 1997-2000. Neurology 2002;58(1):90-97.

 

Tisch S, Brew B. Parkinsonism in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Neurology 2009;73(5):401-403.

 

Krauss JK, Jankovic J. Head injury and posttraumatic movement disorders. Neurosurgery 2002;50 (5):927-939.

 

Krauss JK, Tränkle R, Kopp KH. Posttraumatic movement disorders after moderate or mild head injury. Mov Disord 1997;12(3):428-431.

 

Richardson JC, Chambers RA, Heywood PM. Encephalopathies of anoxia and hypoglycemia. Arch Neurol 1959;1(2):178-182.

 

Németh AH. The genetics of primary dystonias and related disorders. Brain 2002;125(Pt 4):695-721.

 

Kumar S, Fowler M, González-Toledo E, Jaffe SL. Central pontine myelinolysis, an update. Neurol Res 2006;28(3):360-366.

 

Lang AE, Marsden CD, Obeso JA, Parkes JD. Alcohol and parkinson disease. Ann Neurol 1982; 12(3):254-256.

 

Deuschl G, Bain PG, Brin M. Consensus statement of the movement disorder society on tremor. Ad Hoc Scientific Committee. Mov Disord 1998; 13(Suppl 3):2-23.

 

Louis ED, Levy G, Cote LJ, Mejia H, Fahn S, Marder K. Clinical correlates of action tremor in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2001;58(10):1630-1634.

 

Cohen O, Pullman S, Jurewicz E, Watner D, Louis ED. Rest tremor in patients with essential tremor: prevalence, clinical correlates, and electrophysiologic characteristics. Arch Neurol 2003;60(3): 405-410.

 

Wick JY, Zanni GR. Essential tremor: symptoms and treatment. Consult Pharm 2008;23(5):364-370, 375-377.

 

Foltynie T, Barker R, Brayne C. Vascular parkinsonism: a review of the precision and frequency of the diagnosis. Neuroepidemiology. 2002;21(1): 1-7.

 

Zijlmans JC, Daniel SE, Hughes AJ, Revesz T, Lees AJ. Clinicopathological investigation of vascular parkinsonism, including clinical criteria for diagnosis. Mov Disord 2004;19(6):630-640.

 

Bhatoe HS. Movement disorders caused by brain tumours. Neurol India 1999;47(1):40 42.

 

Peckham EL, Hallett M. Psychogenic movement disorders. Neurol Clin 2009;27(3):801-819.


Enlaces refback

  • No hay ningún enlace refback.