Envíe este artículo por correo electrónico (Inicie sesión)
Enviar un correo electrónico al autor/a (Inicie sesión) Open Journal Systems
Consenso de Hipertensión Arterial Sistémica en México
Resumen
Este Consenso Nacional de Hipertensión Arterial Sistémica reúne las experiencias y el trabajo conjunto de 79 especialistas que han estado en contacto con el paciente que padece hipertensión arterial sistémica. Todos los conceptos aquí presentados se plantearon con base en la práctica del mundo real de la población hipertensa de México. El consenso se desarrolló bajo lineamientos metodológicos estrictos. La técnica de Delphi se aplicó en dos vueltas para el desarrollo de un análisis estadístico apropiado de los conceptos vertidos por todos los especialistas con preguntas clave que desarrolló el panel de expertos del Hospital de Cardiología y especialistas del Centro Médico Nacional. Se presentan los aspectos de detección, diagnóstico, fisiopatología, clasificación, tratamiento y prevención. El análisis de la evidencia en la literatura se hizo utilizando el método de PRISMA para análisis de evidencia. Se revisaron más de 600 artículos y se dejaron en la bibliografía solo los más representativos. Este documento concluye con recomendaciones prácticas y de utilidad para los tres niveles de atención en salud de nuestro país.
Palabras clave
Referencias
US Department of Health and Human Services/ Food and Drug Administration/Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). Guidance for Industry on Hypertension Indication: Drug Labeling for Cardiovascular Outcome Claims; March, 15, 2011;76 FR 14024:1-12. Disponible en http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/.../Guidances/ucm075072.pdf
Mascie-Taylor CG, Karim E. The burden of chronic disease. Science. 2003;302: 1921-2.
Wolf-Maier K, Cooper RS, Banegas JR, Giampaoli S, Hans-Werner H, Joffres M, et al. Hypertension Prevalence and Blood Pressure Levels in 6 European Countries, Canada, and the United States. JAMA. 2003;289:2363-9.
Valles V, Arroyo P, Fernandez V, Herrera J, Kuri-Morales P, Olaiz G, et al. The Mexican ministry of Health conducted a national survey of chronic disease in 1992-3. Hypertension. 1999;33:1094.
Velazquez-Monroy O, Rosas Peralta M, Lara Esqueda A, Pastelin Hernandez G, Castillo C, Attie F, et al. Prevalence and interrelations of noncommunicable chronic diseases and cardiovascular risk factors in Mexico. Arch Cardiol Mex. 2003;73(1):62-77.
[No authors listed]. National High Blood Pressure Education Program. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2413-46.
US Department of Health and Human Services, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. National High Blood Pressure Education Program. Disponible en http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/about/nhbpep/index.htm
Sheps SG, Roccella EJ. Reflections on the sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Curr Hypertens Rep. 1999; Aug;1(4):342-5.
Johnson J, Herrera-Acosta J, Schreiner GF, Rodriguez-Iturbe B. Mechanisms of Disease: Subtle Acquired Renal Injury as a Mechanism of Salt-Sensitive Hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:913-23.
Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Vander Hoorn S, Murray CJ; Comparative Risk Assessment Collaborating Group. Selected major risk factors and global and regional burden of disease. Lancet. 2002;360:1347-60.
Roccella EJ, Kaplan NM. Interpretation and evaluation of clinical guidelines. In: Izzo JL Jr, Black HR, eds. Hypertension Primer. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association. 2003;126:126-7.
Vasan RS, Larson MG, Leip EP. Assessment of frequency of progression to hypertension in non-hypertensive participants in the Framingham Heart Study: A cohort study. Lancet. 2001;358:1682-6.
Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S. Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: The Framingham Heart Study. JAMA. 2002;287:1003-10.
Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: A meta–analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:1903-13.
Wang R. Lack of effect of guideline changes on hypertension control por patients with diabetes in the US, 1995-2005. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:49-52.
Rosas M. Arterial hypertension in Mexico and its association with other risk factors. Arch Cardiol Mex. 2003;73 Suppl 1: S137-40.
Velasquez Monroy O, Rosas Peralta M, Lara Esqueda A, Pastelin Hernandez G, Attie F, Tapia Conyer R; Grupo Encuesta Nacional de Salud 2000. Arterial hypertension in Mexico: results of the National Health Survey 2000. Arch Cardiol Mex. 2002;72(1):71-84.
Feinstein AR. Multivariable Analysis: An introduction. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press; 1996. pp. 297-369.
Shariff NJ. Utilizing the Delphi Survey Approach: A Review. J Nurs Care. 2015;4:246. doi:10.4172/2167-1168.1000246
James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, Cushman WC, Handler J, Lackland, DT, et al. 2014 Evidence-Based Guideline for the Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: Report From the Panel Members Appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311(5):507-20.
Campbell NRC, Tu K, Brant R, Duong-Hua M, McAlister FA. The Impact of the Canadian Hypertension Education Program on Antihypertensive Prescribing Trenes for the Canadian Hypertension Education Program Outcomes Research Task Force. Hypertension. 2006;47:22-8.
2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertension. 2013;31(7):1281-357.
Lohr KN. Rating the strength of scientific evidence: relevance for quality improvement programs. Int J Qual Health Care. 2004;16(1):9-18.
Feinstein AR. “Clinical Judgment” revisited: the distraction of quantitative models. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:799-805.
World Hypertension League. Measuring your blood pressure. Disponible en http://www.mco.edu/org/whl/bloodpre.html
Stevo J, Nesbitt SD, Egan BM, Weber MA, Michelson EL, Kaciroti N, et al. Feasibility of treating prehypertension with an angiotensin-receptor blocker. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1685-97.
Pickering T. Recommendations for the use of home (self) and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. American Society of Hypertension Ad Hoc Panel. Am J Hypertens. 1996;9:1-11.
Verdecchia P. Prognostic value of ambulatory bloodpressure: current evidence and clinical implications. Hypertension. 2000;35:844-51.
American Heart Association. Home monitoring of high blood pressure. Disponible en http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=576
Chalmers J, MacMahon S, Mancia G, Whitworth J, Beilin L, Hansson L, et al. WHO-ISH hypertension guidelines committee. 1999 World Health Organization-International Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the management of hypertension.
Jae SY, Fernhall B, HeffernanKS, Kang M, Lee MK, Choi YH, et al. Exaggerated blood pressure response to exercise is associated with carotid atherosclerosis in apparently healthy men. Journal of Hypertension. 2005;24(5):881-7.
Darne B, Girerd X, Safar M, Cambien F, Guize L. Pulsatile versus steady component of blood pressure: a cross-sectional analysis and a prospective analysis on cardiovascular mortality. Hypertension. 1989;13:392-400.
Benetos A, Safar M, Rudnichi A, Smulyan H, Richard JL, Ducimetieere P, Guize L. Pulse pressure: a predictor of long-term cardiovascular mortality in a French male population. Hypertension. 1997;30:1410-5.
Gasowski J, Fagard RH, Staessen JA, Grodzicki T, Pocock S, Boutitie F, et al. INDANA Project Collaborators. Pulsatile blood pressure component as predictor of mortality in hypertension: a meta-analysis of clinical trial control groups. J Hypertens. 2002;20:145-51.
Blacher J, Staessen JA, Girerd X, Gasowski J, Thijs L, Liu L, et al. Pulse pressure not mean pressure determines cardiovascular risk in older hypertensive patients. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:1085-9.
Chobanian AV, Hill M. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Workshop on Sodium and Blood Pressure: A critical review of current scientific evidence. Hypertension. 2000;35:858-63.
Karter Y, Curgunlu A, Altinisik S, Erturk N, Vehid S, Mihmanli I, et al. Target organ damage and changes in arterial compliance in white coat hypertension. Is white coat innocent? Blood Press. 2003;12(5-6):307-13.
Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-Reactive Protein and Other Markers of Inflammation in the Prediction of Cardiovascular Disease in Women. N Eng J Med. 2000;342:836-43.
Backes JM. Role of C-reactive protein in cardiovascular disease. Ann Pharmacother. 2004;38(1):110-8.
Aronson D, Bartha P, Zinder O, Kerner A, Markiewicz W, Avizohar O, et al. Obesity is the major determinant of elevated C-reactive protein in subjects with the metabolic syndrome. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004;28(5):674-9.
Stuveling EM, Bakker SJ, Hillege HL, Burgerhof JG, De Jong PE, Gans RO, et al. C-Reactive Protein Modifies the Relationship Between Blood Pressure and Microalbuminuria. Hypertension. 2004;43(4):791-6.
Miyazaki M. Angiotensin II in organ organopathy. Nippon Rinsho. 2004;62:21-7.
Parrinello G, Colomba D, Bologna P, Licata A, Pinto A, Paterna S, et al. Early carotid atherosclerosis and cardiac diastolic abnormalities in hypertensive subjects. J Hum Hypertens. 2004;18(3):201-5.
Parving HH, Andersen S, Jacobsen P, Christensen PK, Rossing K, Hovind P, et al. Angiotensin receptor blockers in diabetic nephropathy: Renal and cardiovascular end points. Semin Nephrol. 2004;24(2):147-57.
Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): A randomized trial against atenolol. Lancet. 2002;359:9951003.
Tsang TS, Barnes ME, Gersh BJ, Takemoto Y, Rosales AG, Bailey KR, et al. Prediction of risk for first age-related cardiovascular events in an elderly population: the incremental value of echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(7):1199-205.
Okin PM, Devereux RB, Jern S, Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Dahlof B. Relation of echocardiography left ventricular mass and hypertrophy to persistent electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertensive patients: the LIFE Study. Am J Hypertens. 2001;14(8 Pt 1):775-82.
Eren M, Gorgulu S, Uslu N, Celik S, Dagdeviren B, Tezel T. Relation between aortic stiffness and left ventricular diastolic function in patients with hypertension, diabetes, or both. Heart. 2004;90(1):37-43.
Mohammed SF, Borlaug BA, McNulty S, Lewis GD, Lin G, Zakeri R, et al. Resting ventricular-vascular function and exercise capacity in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: a RELAX Trial Ancillary Study Circ. Heart Fail. 2014;7:580-9.
Van der Meer IM, Bots ML, Hofman A, del Sol AI, van der Kuip DA,
Witteman JC. Predictive value of noninvasive measures of atherosclerosis for incident myocardial infarction: the Rotterdam Study. Circulation. 2004;109(9):1089-94.
Fathi R, Haluska B, Isbel N, Short L, Marwick TH. The relative importance of vascular structure and function in predicting cardiovascular events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43(4):616-23.
Stehouwer CD. Endothelial dysfunction in diabetic nephropathy: state of the art and potential significance for non-diabetic renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004;19(4):778-81.
Carreiro-Lewandowski E. Update on selected markers used in risk assessment for vascular disease. Clin Lab Sci. 2004 Winter;17(1):43-9.
Ruilope LM, Segura J, Campo C, Rodicio JL. Renal participation in cardiovascular risk inessential hypertension. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2003;1(2):309-15.
Cockroft D, Gault MK. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron. 1976;16:31-41.
Alderman M, Aiyer KJ. Uric acid: role in cardiovascular disease and effects of losartan. Curr Med Res Opin. 2004;20(3):369-79.
Sánchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, López-Molina R, Nepomuceno T, Soto V, Ávila-Casado C, et al. Effects of acute and chronic L-arginine treatment in experimental hyperuricemia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2007;292: F1238-44.
Johnson RJ, Kang DH, Feig D, Kivlighn S, Kanellis J, Watanabe S, et al. Is there a pathogenetic role for uric acid in hypertension and cardiovascular and renal disease? Hypertension. 2003;41(6):1183-90.
Kanellis J, Nakagawa T, Herrera-Acosta J, Schreiner GF, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Johnson RJ. A single pathway for the development of essential hypertension. Cardiol Rev. 2003;11(4):180-96.
Johnson RJ, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Herrera-Acosta J. Nephron number and primary hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(17):1717-9.
Klein R, Klein BE, Tomany SC, Wong TY. The relation of retinal microvascular characteristics to age-related eye disease: the Beaver Dam eye study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(3):435-44.
Wong TY. Is retinal photography useful in the measurement of stroke risk? Lancet Neurol. 2004;3(3):179-83.
Demaerschalk BM. Diagnosis and management of stroke (brain attack). Semin Neurol. 2003;77.23(3):241-52.
Cusi D, Barlassina C, Taglietti MV. Genetics of human arterial hypertension. J Nephrol. 2003;16(4):609-15.
Touyz RM, Schiffrin EL. Role of endothelin in human hypertension. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2003;81(6):533-41.
Kaplan NM. Renin-angiotensin system blockade: therapeutic implications beyond blood pressure control. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2007;79.9(11 Suppl 4):2-3.
Raz A, Gamliel-Lazarovich A, Bogner I, Strigevsky A, Keidar S. The importance of ACE2 in regulating the cardiovascular system. Harefuah. 2007;146:703-6, 733.
Weinberger MH. Salt sensitivity is associated with an increased mortality in both normal and hypertensive humans. J Clin Hypertens. 2002;4:274-6.
Sampaio WO, Henrique de Castro C, Santos RA, Schiffrin EL, Touyz RM. Angiotensin-(1-7) counter regulates angiotensin II signaling in human endotelial cells. Hypertension. 2007;50:1093-8. 81.
Ravera M, Ratto E, Vettoretti S, Parodi D, Deferrari G. Prevention and Treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy: The Program for Irbesartan Mortality and Morbidity Evaluation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:48-52.
Manning RD Jr, Hu L, Tan DY, Meng S. Role of abnormal nitric oxide systems in salt–sensitive hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2001;14(6 Pt 2):83.68S-73S.
Lucas CP, Estigarribia JA, Darga LL, Reaven GM. Insulin and blood pressure in obesity. Hypertension. 1985;7:702-6.
Modan M, Halkin H, Almog S, Lusky A, Eshkil A, Shefi M, et al. Hyperinsulinemia: a link between hypertension, obesity and glucose intolerance. J Clin Invest. 1985;75:809-17.
Ferrannini E, Buzzigoli G, Bonadona R. Insulin resistance in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:350-7.
Shen DC, Shieh SM, Fuh M, Wu DA, Chen YDI, Reaven GM. Resistance to insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in patients with hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988;66:580-3. 86.
Swislocki ALM, Hoffman BB, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia in patients with hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1989;2:419-23.
Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C. Insulin resistance is a characteristic feature of primary hypertension independent of obesity. Metabolism. 1990;39:167-74.
Mbanya JC, Wilkinson R, Thomas T, Alberti K, Taylor R. Hypertension and hyperinsulinemia: a relation in diabetes but not in essential hypertension. Lancet. 1988;1:733-4.
Collins VR, Dowse GK, Finch CF, Zimmet PZ. An inconsistent relationship between insulin and blood pressure in three Pacific Island populations. J Clin Epidemiol. 1990;43:1369-378.
Saad MF, Lillioja S, Nyomba BL, Castillo C, Ferraro R, DeGregorio M, et al. Racial differences in the relation between blood pressure and insulin resistance. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:733-9.
Ferrannini E, Natali A, Capaldo B, Lehtovirta M, Jacob S, Yki-Ja¨rvinen H, for the European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance (EGIR). Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and blood pressure. Role of age and obesity. Hypertension. 1992;30:1144-9.
Marigliano A, Tedde R, Sechi LA, Para A, Pisanu G, Pacifico A. Insulinemia and bloodpressure: relationships in patients with primary and secondary hypertension, and with or without glucose metabolism impairment. Am J Hypertens. 1990;3:521-6
Shamiss A, Carroll J, Rosenthall T. Insulin resistance in secondary hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1992;5:26-8.
Ferrari P, Weidmann P, Shaw S, Giachino D, Riesen W, Allemann Y, et al. Altered insulin sensitivity, hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia in individuals with a hypertensive parent. Am J Med. 1991;91:589-96.
Facchini F, Chen YDI, Clinkingbeard C, Jeppesen J, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and dyslipidemia in nonobese individuals with a family history of hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1992;5:694-9.
Allemann Y, Horber FF, Colombo M, Ferrari P, Shaw S, Jaeger P, et al. Insulin sensitivity and body fat distribution in normotensive offspring of hypertensive parents. Lancet. 1993;341:327-31.
Ohno Y, Suzuki H, Yamakawa H, Nakamura M, Otsuka K, Saruta T. Impaired insulin sensitivity in young, lean normotensive offspring of essential hypertensive: possible role of disturbed calcium metabolism. J Hypertens. 1993;11:421-6.
Beatty OL, Harper R, Sheridan B, Atkinson AB, Bell PM. Insulin resistance in offspring of hypertensive parents. BMJ. 1993;307:92-6.
Skarfors ET, Lithell HO, Selinus I. Riskfactors for the development of hypertension: a 10-year longitudinal study in middle-aged men. J Hypertens. 1991;9:217-23.
Lissner L, Bengtsson C, Lapidus L, Kristjansson K, Wedel H. Fasting insulin in relation to subsequent blood pressure changes and hypertension in women. Hypertension. 1992;20:797-801.
Taittonen L, Uhari M, Nuutinen M, Turtinen J, Pokka T, Akerblom HK. Insulin and blood pressure among healthy children. AmJ Hypertens. 1996;9:193-9.
Raitakari OT, Porkka KVK, Rönnemaa T, Knip M, Uhari M, Akerblom HK, et al. The role of insulin in clustering of serum lipids and bloodpressure in children and adolescents. Diabetologia. 1995;38:1042-50.
Zavaroni I, Bonini L, Gasparini P, Barilli AL, Zuccarelli A, Dall’Aglio E, et al. Hyperinsulinemia in a normal population as a predictor of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and coronary heart disease: The Barilla factory revisited. Metabolism. 1994;48:989-94.
Meigs JB. Invited commentary: insulin resistance syndrome? Syndrome X? A syndrome at all? Factor analysis reveals patterns in the fabric of correlated metabolic risk factors. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:908-11.
Yeni-Komshian H, Carantoni M, Abbasi F, Reaven GM. Relationship between several surrogate estimates of insulin resistance and quantification of insulin-mediated glucose disposal in 490 healthy, nondiabetic volunteers. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:171-5.
Reaven GM. Insulin Resistance/Compensatory Hyperinsulinemia, Essential Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:2399-403.
Hunt SC, Gwinn M, Adams TD. Family history assessment: strategies for prevention of cardiovascular disease. Am J Prev Med. 2003;24:136-142.
Cooper RS. Gene-environment interactions and the etiology of common complex disease. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:437-40.
Turner ST, Boerwinkle E. Genetics of bloodpressure, hypertensive complications, and antihypertensive drug responses. Pharmacogenomics. 2003;4:53-65.
Shaughnessy KM, Karet FE. Salt handling and hypertension. J Clin Invest. 2004;113:1075-81.
Weder AB. Pathogenesis of hypertension: genetic and environmental factors. In Hollenberg NJ, Braunwald E, eds.. Atlas of Hypertension. 5th edition, Philadelphia: Current Medicine Group LCC; 2005. pp. 1-38.
Meneton P, Jeunemaitre X, Wardener HE. between dietary salt intake, renal salt handling, blood pressure, and cardiovascular diseases. Physiol Rev. 2005;85:679-715.
Hunter DJ: Gene-environment interactions in human diseases. Nat Rev Genet. 2005;6:287-98.
Cordell HJ, Clayton DG. Genetic association studies. Lancet. 2005;366:1121-31.
Tanira M, Balushi K. Genetic variations related to hypertension: a review. J Hum Hypertens. 2005;19:7-19.
Teare M, Barrett JH. Genetic linkage studies. Lancet. 2005;366:1036-44.
Burton PR, Tobin MD, Hopper JL. Key concepts in genetic epidemiology. Lancet. 2005;366:941-51.
Young JH, Chang YP, Kim JD. Differential susceptibility to hypertension is due to selection during the out-of-Africa expansion. PLoS Genet. 2005;1:e82.
Ahn AC, Tewari M, Poon CS. The limits of reductionism in medicine: could systems biology offer an alternative. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e208.
Ahn AC, Tewari M, Poon CS. The clinical applications of a systems approach. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e209.
Vongpatanasin W. Resistant Hypertension: A Review of Diagnosis and Management. JAMA. 2014;311(21):2216-24.
Canto C, Vogt-Ferrier N. Drug-induced arterial hypertension. Rev Med Suisse. 2006;1(2)2463-7.
Fenves AZ, Ram CV. Renovascular hypertension: clinical concepts. Minerva Med. 2006;97(4):313-24.
Reisch N, Peczkowska M, Januszewicz A, Neumann HP. Pheochromocytoma: presentation diagnosis treatment. J Hypertens. 2006;24:2331-9.
Sawka AM, Jaeschke R, Singh RJ, Young WF Jr. A comparison of biochemical tests for pheochromocytoma: measurement of fractionated plasma metanephrines compared with the combination of 24-hour urinary metanephrines and catecholamines. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:553-8.
Bravo EL. Evolving concepts in the pathophysiology diagnosis treatment of pheochromocytoma. Endocrine Rev. 1994;15:356-68.
Goldstein DS, Eisenhofer G, Flynn JA, Wand G, Pacak K. Diagnosis and localization of pheochromocytoma. Hypertension. 2004;43:907-10.
Sjoberg RJ, Simcic KJ, Kidd GS. The clonidine suppression test for pheochromocytoma. A review of its utility and pitfalls. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1193-7.
Ilias I, Pacak K. Current approaches and recommended algorithm for the diagnostic localization of pheochromocytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:479-91.
Gimm O, Koch CA, Januszewicz A, Opocher G, Neumann HP. The genetic basis of pheochromocytoma. Front Horm Res. 2004;31:45-60.
Mulatero P, Milan A, Fallo F, Regolisti G, Pizzolo F, Fardella C, et al. Comparison of Confirmatory Tests for the Diagnosis of Primary Aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:2618-23.
Tritos NA. Diagnosis of primary aldosteronism in patient with an incidentally found adrenal mass. Nature Clinical Practice Endocronoly & Metabol. 2007;3:547-51.
Zabal C, Attie F, Rosas M, Buendía-Hernández A, García-Montes JA. The adult patient with native coarctation of the aorta: balloon angioplasty orprimary stenting? Heart. 2003;89:77-83.
Findling JW, Raff H. Cushing’s Syndrome: important issues in diagnosis management. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:3746-53.
Parati G, Bilo G, Lombardi C, Mancia G. Secondary hypertension: Sleep Apnea. In: Black HR, Elliott WJ, editors. Hypertension: A companion to Braunwald’s Heart diseases. Amsterdam: Saunders-Elsevier; 2007. pp. 134-143.
Hirsch S. A different approach to resistant hypertension. Clev Clin J Med. 2007;74:449-56.
Dahlof B, Sever PS, Poulter NR, Wedel H, Beevers DG, Caulfield M, et al.; ASCOT Investigators. Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendroflumethiazide as required, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-BloodPressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT¬-BPLA): a multicentre randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;366:895-906.
Julius S. Should the results of TROPHY affect the JNC 7 definition of prehypertension? Curr Hypertens Rep. 2007;9(3):202-5.
American College of Preventive Medicine. Metabolic Syndrome Clinical Reference Page. Washington, DC; 2009. Disponible en http://media.metabolicsyndromeinstitute.com/fichiers–site–mets/waist_circumference.mpg
Brauer PM, Hanning RM, Arocha JF, Royall D, Grant A, Dietrich L, et al. Development of a nutrition counselling care map for dyslipidemia. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2007;68(4):183-92.
Van Horn L. A DASH-ing Success. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107(9):1463-9.
Williams B. Evolution of Hypertensive Disease: a revolution in guidelines. Lancet. 2006;368:6-8.
Bruguera-Cortada J, García-García C. Eficacia antianginosa de la ivabradina. Mecanismos de acción diferenciales con otros fármacos antianginosos. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2007;7:46-52.
ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Effects of a fixed combination of perindopril and indapamide on macrovascular and microvascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the ADVANCE trial): a randomized controlled trial. The Lancet. 2007;370:829-40.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Questions and Answers. Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) Trial. February 6, 2008. Disponible en http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/heart/other/accord/q_a.htm
The ONTARGET INVESTIGATORS. Telmisartan, Ramipril or Both in Patients at High Risk for Vascular Events. N Eng J Med. 2008;15:1547-59.
Enlaces refback
- No hay ningún enlace refback.